A vital speech in Shakespeare

 Troilus and Cressida is not Shakespeare's best known play nor is it his most accessible. Yet it contains one speech which reveals much contemporary (and previous) thinking and belief. Ulysses describes in detail the chaos which would result from an essential hierarchy being destroyed, the widely held view of world order that I (following Pope, Lovejoy and Tillyard) have termed the Great Chain of Being in a previous post.

Strictly, the speech should be set in its dramatic and historical context with Ulysses having a political agendum concerning Achilles - and so any decoding should bear that in mind. He delivers the relevant part of this oration in Act I scene iii beginning at line 83: "Degree being vizarded" and continues until l. 134: "pale and bloodless emulation".  

In the main section of the speech, he orates about the consequences of degree being overturned. This would be like the steps of a ladder being disassembled and chaos resulting. The sun, Sol, is properly like a king of the planets, but, if this position of power were lost and concord thereby disrupted, the earth would be subject to sea storms, earthquakes and all manner of horrors. The microcosm of human life is reflected reciprocally by the macrocosm of the heavens, which is why celestial portents were so feared, in case they heralded a disaster. (Note the derivation of that word). The imagery is of the discord caused when a string is untuned. 

Ulysses then declaims about the loss of degree or hierarchy in human society which would cause total disorder and render "peaceful commerce" unworkable, mirrored by the waters overwhelming dry land.  This leads to the crucial section where justice falls apart, sons murder fathers and any moral sense of right and wrong is no more. Man would become akin to an animal, a "universal wolf" because he would be driven by appetite, will and power with no restraints set by reason, the faculty which should separate humanity from beasts. The result would be uncontrollable competition. Overall, it is a terrifying picture - but one with a political aim.

I will leave you to read this speech for yourself and consider how the concept, although special to one situation, can shed light on other texts: King Lear's abdication would be one complex example. 

Using a Thesaurus - for students

I have already posted about banning words like upset and incredibly in a literary essay. If I had my way they'd be made illegal in everyday life! That's because they are so ubiquitous and bland that they remove all the process of thinking how to write or talk sense. AI constantly says something is incredible when it wants you to believe it. Nonsense! We don't use AI to help us to write though, do we?

What else can be used instead of the adjective upset? If I turn to Roget's Thesaurus I find plenty of other expressions, some of which I have formed from the verbs given. (Not alternatives because that means one of two). Here are some of them:

troubled, embarrassed, discomfited, worried, afflicted, distressed, traumatised, harrowed, shocked, appalled, frightened, distraught, horrified, pained, wounded, nettled, embittered, offended, tormented, vexed, depressed.

If you feel confident about their meaning, tone and register (whether formal or slang for example), go ahead and use one of them, storing it in your memory. If you are uncertain, wait until you have encountered the term a few times in your general reading. There are also dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms that can help to widen your working vocabulary range. You want your essays to stand out from the crowd and a more precise use of words will do it. 

The Fall of Man

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste

Brought death into the word and all our woe ...

These are the opening lines of Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost which cannot be understood without a working knowledge of the story of the Fall of Man. Not only Milton, but other authors allude to the concept - as do many artists. We sometimes refer to "forbidden fruit."

The narrative is that Eve, partner of Adam in the perfect Garden of Eden, was tempted by Satan, disguised as a serpent, to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Although this was forbidden by God, she persuaded Adam to do the same. From being immortal and without sin, they then became both mortal and sinful, his act being known as Original Sin. It induced shame which led them to cover their genitals with leaves. They were finally banished from the Garden by St. Michael. The fruit is often represented as an apple and the leaves as fig leaves.

I failed to find a verifiable photograph of the Garden and so, here is my impression. St. Michael was not wearing the eponymous underwear of the erstwhile famous brand at the time. Nor a fig leaf.

Satan wanted vengeance on God for hurling him, then an angel, Lucifer, bearer of light, out of heaven down to Hell because he had rebelled. After consultation with the other fallen angels, he decided that the best way was to attack God's newly created humans. His sin was Pride or hubris, the worst of the 7 Deadly sins. (Soldiers in W.W.1 sang of a match as a Lucifer). The council of fallen angels, now devils, in Hell was known as Pandemonium (all the devils) a word we still use today. Pride, as we all know, goes before a fall.

Mankind, instead of being immortal as before, now encountered Death, until given the chance to regain everlasting life by following God's incarnated son, Jesus. In Paradise Regained Milton covered that too. At length. 

These are doubtless great works but the diction is heavily Latinate. Dr. Johnson remarked of Paradise Lost that "none ever wished it longer than it is" and that "the lack of human interest is always felt". Well said, Samuel.

How to structure and write a literature essay

This post will give you a basic structure for a one-hour literature essay on one of your set examination texts. It is: introduction, 3 or 4 main paragraphs, conclusion.

Before you start, repeat to yourself: relevance, relevance, relevance. However brilliant an idea may be, it will gain no marks at all if it does not answer the question exactly as set.

Even if you feel pressed for time, read the question carefully and give it a few minutes' thought before writing anything. Then construct one sentence (or a couple of shorter ones) which answer it directly, You can jot this down on rough paper - if allowed - or it can be the first sentence of your essay, in the introduction.

Let us take the question: Analyse the theme of madness in King Lear. (Search for my separate post on the correct way of punctuating, although you can use quotation marks even for full titles in handwriting). Your overarching sentence for the whole essay might be:

"The theme of madness in King Lear is closely allied to that of folly and is embodied in three characters: King Lear himself, the Fool and Poor Tom. Each is different and has his own language".

You have shown that you can relate madness to other concepts but do NOT go on to write about folly except to mention it briefly. The last sentence shows that you are aware of how a writer achieves his effects. Showing how will gain you top grades. 

Fortunately, the structure of paragraphs is there: one for each character.  A paragraph must have a key sentence: "The Fool's apparent madness contains sharp wisdom about the folly of Lear's actions because he is licensed to say what others dare not". You then expand on that point with a further explanation backed by quotations or close reference, paying attention to his unique manner of expression. If you cannot remember a quotation, do not invent it. The examiner knows the text inside out! Instead quote a word or two and paraphrase. To summarise: each paragraph has a leading key sentence, expansion and examples by quotation or close reference. Do the same for the other characters.

The conclusion can be a round up of what you have said or a new perception - but still relevant. It could be that sane Edgar in the sub-plot is also Poor Tom in the main plot, with his assumed madness. A different point could be that madness is connected to the theme of insight and blindness.

Extra tips: do not use AI to help you to write your homework essays. That bland, impersonal style is instantly recognisable and you will find yourself adopting it. Use the language that you would to a respected older person, not pompous but direct. Never use "upset" or "incredibly" and there is no need to say "I think". If the question seems impossibly difficult, do what you can with it. Schools will complain and the moderators will adjust their marking. 

Good luck and may you get Top Marks!

ONLY - have fun with the Bishop and the bun

 It is vital to place the word only correctly in your sentence. That position is usually just before the word it refers to or qualifies.

To see what i mean, take this simple sentence.

The Bishop gave the baboon a bun.

Now pop the word only before each word in turn.

I know you can do it by yourself - but I want to have fun also.

Only the Bishop gave the baboon a bun.

The only Bishop gave the baboon a bun.

The Bishop only gave the baboon a bun.

It's even more fun reading the sentences aloud. The last one should have a deeply apologetic tone because clearly the baboon had suffered as a result of its treat. Now carry on by yourself.

Note to any teachers reading this: your pupils will love it.

The Great Chain of Being

The concept of a chain of all creation, firmly in place and indisputable was widely upheld in the Middle Ages and through to Shakespeare.

It maintained that there is a rightful hierarchy which must not be broken and it is the exact opposite of our modern egalitarian view of life.

At the top was God and below Him came the angels. Man was next and was considered less spiritual than those above but with a capacity for reason which kept him above the category below him, animals. Plants followed and at the bottom were minerals. 

Within these groups there was also a ladder which makes quite comical reading nowadays when we do not pay attention to the exact position of prawns in a paradigm of life.

Kennings and Homeric epithets

An Anglo-Saxon kenning is a descriptive pfrase which replaces the noun: 

The ship sailed over the whale-road.

A Homeric epithet is an adjectival phrase which adds to the noun:

The ship sailed over the wine-dark sea. It usually has two words: bright-eyed; rosy fingered.